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History of computer technology

History of computer technology

 

History of computing hardware

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evices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a tally stick.^* The Antakya, dating from about the beginning of the first century BC, is generally considered to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer, and the earliest known geared mechanism* Comparable geared devices did not emerge in Europe until the 16th century,^]and it was not until 1645 that the first mechanical calculator capable of performing the four basic arithmetical operations was developed.^*

Electronic computers, using either relays or valves, began to appear in the early 1940s. The electromechanical Zeus Z3, completed in 1941, was the world's first programmable computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a

Complete computing machine. Colossus, developed during the Second World War to decrypt German messages was the first electronic digital computer. Although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory; programming was carried out using plugs and switches to alter the internal wiring.^* The first recognizably modern electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM), which ran its first program on 21 June 1948.^*

The development of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories allowed a new generation of computers to be designed with greatly reduced power consumption. The first commercially available stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, contained 4050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts. By comparison the first transistorized computer, developed at the University of Manchester and operational by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its final version.^*

Data storage

Data storage device

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arly electronic computers such as Colossus made use of punched tape, a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes, a technology now obsolete.^*Electronic data storage, which is used in modern computers, dates from World War II, when a form of delay line memory was developed to remove the clutter from radar signals, the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line.^* The first random-access digital storage device was the Williams tube, based on a standard cathode ray tube,^* but the information stored in it and delay line memory was volatile in that it had to be continuously refreshed, and thus was lost once power was removed. The earliest form of non-volatile computer storage was the magnetic drum, invented in 1932^* and used in the Ferranti Mark 1, the world's first commercially available general-purpose electronic computer.^*

IBM introduced the first hard disk drive in 1956, as a component of their 305 RAMAC computer system.^* Most digital data today is still stored magnetically on hard disks, or optically on media such as CD-ROMs.^[21] Until 2002 most information was stored on analog devices, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the first time. As of 2007 almost 94% of the data stored worldwide was held digitally:^* 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical devices and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been estimated that the worldwide capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 Exabyte’s in 1986 to 295 Exabyte’s in 2007,^* doubling roughly every 3 years.

Database

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atabase management systems emerged in the 1960* to address the problem of storing and retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly. One of the earliest such systems was IBM's Information Management System (IMS),^*which is still widely deployed more than 40 years later.^*IMS stores data hierarchically,^* but in the 1970s Ted Coded proposed an alternative relational storage model based on set theory and predicate logic and the familiar concepts of tables, rows and columns. The first commercially available relational database management system (RDBMS) was available from Oracle in 1980*

All database management systems consist of a number of components that together allow the data they store to be accessed simultaneously by many users while maintaining its integrity. A characteristic of all databases is that the structure of the data they contain is defined and stored separately from the data itself, in a database schema.^*

The extensible markup language (XML) has become a popular format for data representation in recent years. Although XML data can be stored in normal file systems, it is commonly held in relational databases to take advantage of their "robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort".^*As an evolution of the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML's text-based structure offers the advantage of being both machine and human-readable.^*

Data retrieval

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he relational database model introduced a programming-language independent Structured Query Language (SQL), based on relational algebra.^*

The terms "data" and "information" are not synonymous. Anything stored is data, but it only becomes information when it is organized and presented meaningfully.^*Most of the world's digital data is unstructured, and stored in a variety of different physical formats^* even within a single organization. Data warehouses began to be developed in the 1980s to integrate these disparate stores. They typically contain data extracted from various sources, including external sources such as the Internet, organized in such a way as to facilitate decision support systems (DSS).^*

Data transmission

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ata transmission has three aspects: transmission, propagation, and reception.^* It can be broadly categorized as broadcasting, in which information is transmitted unidirectional downstream, or telecommunications, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels.^*

XML has been increasingly employed as a means of data interchange since the early 2000s,^* particularly for machine-oriented interactions such as those involved in web-oriented protocols such as SOAP,^*describing "data-in-transit rather than ... data-at-rest".^*One of the challenges of such usage is converting data from relational databases into XML Document Object Model (DOM) structures.^*

Data manipulation

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ilbert and Lopez identify the exponential pace of technological change (a kind of Moore's law): machines' application-specific capacity to compute information per capita roughly doubled every 14 months between 1986 and 2007; the per capita capacity of the world's general-purpose computers doubled every 18 months during the same two decades; the global telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every 34 months; the world's storage capacity per capita required roughly 40 months to double (every 3 years); and per capita broadcast information has doubled every 12.3 years.^*

Massive amounts of data are stored worldwide every day, but unless it can be analyzed and presented effectively it essentially resides in what have been called data tombs: "data archives that are seldom visited".^*To address that issue, the field of data mining – "the process of discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data"^*– emerged in the late 1980s.^*

 

Perspective

Academic perspective

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n an academic context, the Association for Computing Machinery defines IT as "undergraduate degree programs that prepare students to meet the computer technology needs of business, government, healthcare, schools, and other kinds of organizations .... IT specialists assume responsibility for selecting hardware and software products appropriate for an organization, integrating those products with organizational needs and infrastructure, and installing, customizing, and maintaining those applications for the organization’s computer users.*

Commercial and employment perspective

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n a business context, the Information Technology Association of America has defined information technology as "the study, design, development, application, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems". The responsibilities of those working in the field include network administration, software development and installation, and the planning and management of an organization's technology life cycle, by which hardware and software are maintained, upgraded and replaced.

The business value of information technology lies in the automation of business processes, provision of information for decision making, connecting businesses with their customers, and the provision of productivity tools to increase efficiency.

ICT in Education

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) can contribute to universal access to education, equity in education, the delivery of quality learning and teaching, teachers’ professional development and more efficient education management, governance and administration.

UNESCO takes a holistic and comprehensive approach to promoting ICT in education. Access, inclusion and quality are among the main challenges they can address. The Organization’s Intersect oral Platform for ICT in education focuses on these issues through the joint work of three of its sectors: Communication & Information, Education and Science.

UNESCO’s global network of offices, institutes and partners provide Member States with resources for elaborating ICT in education policies, strategies and activities. In particular, the UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education (IITE), based in Moscow, specializes in information exchange, research and training on the integration of ICT in education while UNESCO’s Bangkok office is strongly involved in ICT for Education in Asia and the Pacific.

IT &I CT

Difference between IT and I CT

IT vs. I CT 

IT (Information Technology) refers to an entire industry that uses computers, networking, software and other equipment to manage information. Modern IT departments in large companies are equipped with computers, DBMS (Database Management Systems), servers and security mechanisms for storing, processing, retrieving and protecting information of the company. I CT (Information Communications Technology) is a term widely used in the context of education. Even though there is no universally accepted definition for I CT, it mainly refers to utilizing digital technologies such as computers, television, email, etc to help individuals or organizations to use information.

What is IT?

IT refers to an entire industry that uses computers, networking, software and other equipment to manage information. Generally, IT departments are responsible for storing, processing, retrieving and protecting digital information of the company. For achieving these tasks, they are equipped with computers, DBMS, servers and security mechanisms, etc. Professionals working in IT departments range from system administrators, database administrators to programmers, network engineers and IT managers. When executing a business, IT facilitates the business by providing four sets of core services. These core services are providing information, providing tools to improve productivity, business process automation and providing means to connect with customers. Currently, IT has become an essential part in business operations and has provided lot of job opportunities worldwide. Knowledge in IT has become essential to succeed in the workplace. Typically, IT professionals are responsible for a range of duties including simple tasks such as installing software to complex tasks such as designing and building networks and managing databases.

What is I CT?

As mentioned earlier, I CT is a term widely used in the context of education. Even though there is no universally accepted definition for I CT, it mainly refers to utilizing digital technologies such as computers, television, email, etc to help individuals or organizations to work with digital information. I CT can be seen as an extended synonym for IT. Therefore, I CT can be seen as an integration of IT with media broadcasting technologies, audio/ video processing and transmission and telephony. The term I CT first came in to picture in 1997 in a report prepared by Dennis Stevenson for the UK government. Recently, the term I CT has been used to refer to integrating telephone and audio/ visual networks with computer networks. This integration has provided large savings of costs due to the elimination of telephone networks.

What is the difference between IT and I CT?

IT refers to an entire industry that uses computers, networking, software and other equipment to manage information, whereas I CT can be seen as an integration of IT with media broadcasting technologies, audio/ video processing and transmission and telephony. Therefore, I CT can be seen as an extended acronym for IT. The term I CT is widely used in the context of education, whereas IT is a term widely used in the industry. In addition, recently, I CT is also used to refer to the integration of telephone and audio/ visual networks with computer networks. In simplest terms, I CT can be seen as the integration of information technology with communication technology.

ICT

I C T (information and communications technology - or technologies)

I C T (information and communications technology - or technologies) is an umbrella term that includes any communication device or application, encompassing: radio, television, cellular phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems and so on, as well as the various services and applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing and distance learning. I CT are often spoken of in a particular context, such as I CT in education, health care, or libraries. The term is somewhat more common outside of the United

Sponsored News

• Top 3 Ways Microservices Benefit Developers–IBM
• Survey: Virtualization Leads the Way for 2015 Desktop Initiatives–Dell
• See More

Vendor Resources

• Capturing the ICT Dividend–ComputerWeekly.com
• The Global ICT Supplier Top 50–ComputerWeekly.com

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Sponsored News

• Top 3 Ways Microservices Benefit Developers–IBM
• Survey: Virtualization Leads the Way for 2015 Desktop Initiatives–Dell
• See More

Vendor Resources

• Capturing the ICT Dividend–ComputerWeekly.com
• The Global ICT Supplier Top 50–ComputerWeekly.com